Geographical Studies and Development

Migration is an integral part of human history. The Kosi-Seemanchal region of Bihar is a socio-economically backward area dominated by agricultural and allied economic activities, where unemployment and poverty are the principal drivers of out-migration. Inequality in economic development, arising from the uneven spread of the Green Revolution across the region, is the principal cause of large-scale rural out-migration of labour. As economic considerations increasingly shape rural livelihoods, migrant labourers are compelled to search for better wages elsewhere. The development purposive of rapid transportation and communication has further reshaped migration trends and patterns over time. The present paper analyses the trends and changing pattern of labour migration from the Kosi-Seemanchal region. The study is based on primary data collected from 300 migrant labourers through a multi-stage sampling design (selection of Community Development Blocks, followed by random sampling of migrant households within each block) across seven Community Development Blocks of the Kosi-Seemanchal region. The study covers the period 2000-2025, with data analysed at five-year intervals. Descriptive statistics were applied, and MS Excel and ArcGIS software were used to visualise migration flow and the spatial distribution of migrant labor. The results show that migrant labourers are shifting from the traditional destinations of north-western India towards western and southern India. Seasonal migration remains the dominant type of movement in this area, although the pattern is gradually shifting from short-term to longer-term inter-state migration, altering the occupational structure of the population. The large-scale out-migration of labour from the study area is also creating labour scarcity in the region's own farming and construction sectors.

The Punpun River, a major tributary of the Ganga originating near the Palamu region of Jharkhand, traverses roughly 64 km between sampling sites from Pinjrawan (Pali block) to Sammaspur (Fatuha block) of Patna district before its confluence with the Ganga near Fatuha. This study presents a pre-monsoon (18–20 April) comparative assessment of physico-chemical water quality at the river’s entry point into the district (Pinjrawan) and its exit point (Sammaspur) immediately before the Ganga confluence. Fourteen parameters—temperature, pH, total dissolved solids (TDS), electrical conductivity (EC), total hardness, calcium, magnesium, chloride, sulphate, nitrate, alkalinity, turbidity, dissolved oxygen (DO) and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)—were evaluated against BIS (2012) desirable and permissible limits. At Pinjrawan, all major ionic and nutrient parameters remained within desirable limits; DO (7.88 mg L⁻¹) and BOD (2.91 mg L⁻¹) indicated a well-oxygenated, low-pollution stretch, although turbidity (21.82 NTU) exceeded the permissible limit. At Sammaspur, TDS, total hardness, magnesium and alkalinity had crossed the desirable limit (remaining within the permissible limit), DO had declined to 5.77 mg L⁻¹, BOD had risen to 4.93 mg L⁻¹, and turbidity had risen sharply to 158.5 NTU. The consistent downstream increase across nearly all parameters indicates a pronounced longitudinal degradation gradient over the 64 km stretch, plausibly linked to agricultural return flow, domestic sewage inflow and industrial effluent discharge, in addition to natural evaporative concentration and sediment loading. While the river remains largely within drinking-water-adjacent limits for major ions at both sites, turbidity is a basin-wide concern and the exit stretch shows early signs of organic enrichment. Both sites nominally meet CPCB (2008) criteria for fish and wildlife propagation (DO, pH), but literature turbidity–biota thresholds suggest the entry site’s benthic community is already under sediment-related stress and the exit site’s high turbidity and narrower DO margin are less favourable for fish foraging and respiratory efficiency. Findings are presented as a preliminary longitudinal signal; an expanded, seasonally replicated monitoring design incorporating direct biological survey is recommended.

This study examines the patterns, trends, and causal factors of internal migration in Sikkim using Census of India data for 2001 and 2011 (D3 Migration Tables) together with the Multiple Indicator Survey (MIS) 2020–21. The results show that migration in Sikkim increased from 1,86,987 persons in 2001 to 2,47,049 in 2011, with the migration rate rising from 34.57% to 40.46%, above the national average of 38%. Intra-district migration is the dominant stream, growing from 48.37% to 51.00% of all migrants, while inter-district migration's share declined slightly despite an absolute increase. Interstate in-migration is concentrated from West Bengal, Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh, while out-migration flows toward more economically developed states such as Delhi, Maharashtra, and Karnataka. Marriage is the principal reason for female migration across all districts, while work and employment dominate male migration, with East District and its capital, Gangtok, emerging as the state's primary migration hub owing to its administrative, educational, and economic importance. A district-wise composite index of selected urban-development indicators confirms East District's pre-eminence, followed by South, North, and West Districts. The findings highlight the need for balanced regional development to reduce migration-driving disparities across Sikkim's districts.